Wisdom of Saints: St Gregory the Great

The Feast of Gregory the Great, Doctor, Bishop of Rome, 604

O GOD, who by thy Holy Spirit hast given unto one man a word of wisdom, and to another a word of knowledge, and to another the gift of tongues: We praise thy Name for the gifts of grace manifested in thy servant Gregory, and we pray that thy Church may never be destitute of the same; through Jesus Christ our Lord. Amen.

Lent

ALMIGHTY and everlasting God, who hatest nothing that thou hast made, and dost forgive the sins of all them that are penitent: Create and make in us new and contrite hearts, that we worthily lamenting our sins, and acknowledging our wretchedness, may obtain of thee, the God of all mercy, perfect remission and forgiveness; through Jesus Christ our Lord. Amen.

St Gregory the Great, also known as St Gregory the Dialogist due to his Dialogues, was the Bishop of Rome in the late 6th century, and played an important role in reconnecting the English Church with the rest of the Western Catholic Church, along with his role in preserving Christianity in Rome itself.

St Gregory was born in Rome around 540 AD to a wealthy and politically influential family. His father, Gordianus, was a Christian and a Roman senator. In his later life, Gordianus would renounce his secular life and become a deacon in Rome. Due to his family’s wealth, St Gregory was afforded a high quality education and in 574, despite being in his mid-thirties, St Gregory was appointed the Prefect of Rome by Emperor Justin the Younger.

His political career was cut short by the death of his father. St Gregory renounced his own political career and began founding a number of monasteries. Six were founded throughout Sicily, and finally in 575 he founded a seventh in Rome itself in his own home, where he took up the monastic habit himself. By 579, he became the personal representative of the Bishop of Rome to the Patriarch of Constantinople where he spent six years. He then returned home only for the Pope to die shortly after his return in 590, and St Gregory was himself elected Pope and installed as the Bishop of Rome.

St Gregory, of many of the Bishops of Rome, was most clearly empowered by the Holy Spirit with the gift of Administration. As pope, he many many revisions to the life of the Western Church, standardizing the liturgy and musical styles with the plainchant which takes its common name of Gregorian Chant from him. He also famously sent St Augustine of Canterbury to Kent on his missionary journey, something St Gregory himself had wanted to do earlier in his life. When St Augustine arrived in 597, he would report back to St Gregory of the existence of the English Church, to which St Gregory famously replied to give the English Church their liberty in local customs (at a time when throughout Western Christendom St Gregory was enforcing uniformity in the liturgy) and to continue to proclaim the Gospel.

The Roman Empire was in significant decline by the time St Gregory became Bishop of Rome, and like several other Popes, he found himself wielding significant political as well as religious authority—with the Pope’s secular political authority helping to increase and solidify his religious authority over time. He defended Rome against various foreign invasions and also co-ordinated relief for Rome in times of plague and famine.

St Gregory the Great was a great writer and theologian, and indeed is counted as one of the four great doctors of the Western Church, along St Augustine of Hippo, St Jerome and St Ambrose of Milan. His lifetime does present an interesting transition point in the life of the Western Church as well, in that St Gregory worked exclusively in Latin. Prior to his lifetime, Greek had remained common in Rome and the West, and was included as an integral part of any form of quality education. Despite the fact that he was emissary to the Bishop of Constantinople for six years, though, there is no clear evidence that St Gregory spoke Greek, and if he did then like St Augustine he refused to use it whenever possible. It is unlikely that St Gregory himself was the reason for the abandonment of Greek in the West, but it does mark his lifetime as an important transition point and point of divergence between the Catholic Church in the East and in the West.

One of Gregory’s famous works is Liber Regulæ Pastoralis (The Book of Pastoral Rule) which provides advice and instruction to priests. It contains a number of eloquent comments on the importance of the role of priests as examples, pastors and shepherds of the faithful. He begins by noting that qualifications are required to become a priest, and that it is not a vocation open to everyone: “No one presumes to teach an art till he has first, with intent meditation, learnt it.  What rashness is it, then, for the unskilful to assume pastoral authority, since the government of souls is the art of arts!” He continues by asserting that even those who are prepared through learning and instruction must still, by example, set forth their teaching before they are truly prepared to be priests:

There are some also who investigate spiritual precepts with cunning care, but what they penetrate with their understanding they trample on in their lives:  all at once they teach the things which not by practice but by study they have learnt; and what in words they preach by their manners they impugn.

He continues on, promoting the humility of priests as necessary for their office. He himself was quite humble and greatly respected the importance of showing humility when in position of authority, to avoid falling into the sin of pride.

In addition to his many theological works, many of his letters remain in existence, including his correpondence with the Eastern Patriarchs. Of particular note is one of his letters to Eulogius, the Bishop and Greek Patriarch of Alexandria from 581 to 608 AD. In his letter, St Gregory writes:

Your Blessedness has also been careful to declare that you do not now make use of proud titles, which have sprung from a root of vanity, in writing to certain persons, and you address me saying, “As you have commanded.” This word, “command,” I beg you to remove from my hearing, since I know who I am, and who you are. For in position you are my brethren, in character my fathers. I did not, then, command, but was desirous of indicating what seemed to be profitable.

St Gregory here seems to be declaring his equality with the Patriarch of Alexandria, something which the Bishop of Rome in the future would deny, when claiming universal jurisdiction over all Christendom. When the Patriarch responded to a previous comment of St Gregory saying St Gregory had commanded him to say something, St Gregory responds that he in no way meant the Patriarch to understand his comments as anything more than a suggestion for he considers them equal. St Gregory makes this even more explicit as he continues in his response, commenting on the fact that in his last letter, Eulogius had addressed St Gregory as the Universal Pope:

But I beg your most sweet Holiness to do this no more, since what is given to another beyond what reason demands is subtracted from yourself. For as for me, I do not seek to be prospered by words but by my conduct. Nor do I regard that as an honour whereby I know that my brethren lose their honour. For my honour is the honour of the universal Church: my honour is the solid vigour of my brethren. Then am I truly honoured when the honour due to all and each is not denied them. For if your Holiness calls me Universal Pope, you deny that you are yourself what you call me universally. But far be this from us. Away with words that inflate vanity and wound charity.

Here he specifically rejects the idea of the universality of his jurisdiction, and indeed continues to affirm equality with the Patriarch of Alexandria. These comments were consistent with comments he had made previously in his correspondence both with Eulogius and also with the Patriarch of Antioch, where St Gregory had recognized the fact that St Peter the Apostle had directly founded the See of Antioch, and ascribed his leadership to the See of Alexandria through St Mark the Evangelist whose Gospel was written on behalf of St Peter, when he remarks in the closing of one of his letters to Eulogius, “We have received with the kindliness wherewith it was sent the blessing of Saint Mark the Evangelist, nay, it may be said more truly, of Saint Peter the Apostle.”

St Gregory’s impact was great, but perhaps his most important contribution is a reminder that even, or especially, priests ought to shy from vanity and pride, and focus instead on holiness of living as an example to their people by which they may learn.

Wisdom of Saints: St Benedict of Nursia

Feast of Benedict, Abbot of Monte Cassino, Italy, c. 540

O ALMIGHTY God, who willest to be glorified in thy Saints, and didst raise up thy servant Benedict to shine as a light in the world: Shine, we pray thee, in our hearts, that we also in our generation may show forth thy praises, who hast called us out of darkness into thy marvellous light; through Jesus Christ our Lord. Amen.

St Benedict of Nursia is considered to be the founder of monasticism in the Christian West. St Benedict founded the Benedictine Order in the 6th century, setting the tone for Western monasticism, and creating an enduring tradition which remains popular throughout the West to this day. A good deal is known about his life from the Dialogues of Pope St Gregory the Great.

St Benedict was born in Nursia, Italy. The son of a Roman noble, St Benedict moved with his family to Rome where he received his education. Around the age of twenty, he became convinced of the need to abandon the lifestyle he was growing into in Rome, and which he saw among his companions. Instead, he turned to the Gospels and sought to dedicate his life exclusively to God. Ultimately this led him to leave Rome, not to take the hermit’s path, but rather to find somewhere away from the temptations and sin on display in the Roman capital. After a brief period living in a small town 30 miles from Rome with a servant he had brought with him. There his first recorded miracle took place, as he miraculously restored a piece of earthenware his servant had accidentally broken. As news of this miracle spread, he grained significant notoriety throughout the town. This attention on him eventually convinced him to take the hermit’s path, and he moved to a cave in some nearby mountains where he lived a more ascetic lifestyle for the next three years, supported only by the abbot Romanus who had a monastery near St Benedict’s cave.

Even in seclusion, he earned a reputation for his pious asceticism and devotion to God. This eventually led to him being asked to become the abbot for a nearby monastery at Vicovaro. He ultimately agreed and went with them for a time. He attempted to impose a more rigid discipline on the monastery emulating his own more ascetic lifestyle, but soon after the monastery’s monks came to regret their invitation to St Benedict to lead them. They found it difficult to follow his strict rules, and ultimately attempted to poison him. Although they failed, St Benedict realised that his tenure as leader was not working out and he returned to his cave.

He began to earn a reputation as a miracle worker, and the number of recorded miracles attributed to him in this period are many. This attracted followers in sufficient numbers to establish twelve new monasteries in the region. In 530 he began construction of his own personal monastery at Monte Cassino in a site where he had previously destroyed a pagan temple to Apollo. In these monasteries, he began working on the development of his Rule which would be used to organize the monastic communities he had established.

The Rule he developed was based on the use of common sense, moderate asceticism, prayer, study of the Scriptures and the saints, work and a life lived in community in obedience, stability (the Rule provided for a regular daily schedule of work, prayer and rest) and the use of the Divine Offices.

He remained the Abbot at Monte Cassino until his death, but has been immortalised by his Rule.

The Rule of St Benedict is the surviving record of the Rule of Life monks in his monasteries were required to live by, but far beyond sketching out the life of a secluded monk, they are an excellent guide to the mink of pious Christian living. In the Book of Common Prayer, after the Catechism is a supplementary instruction section, at the end of which is this exhortation:

Every Christian man or woman should from time to time frame for himself a RULE OF LIFE in accordance with the precepts of the Gospel and the faith and order of the Church; wherein he may consider the following:
The regularity of his attendance at public worship and especially at the holy Communion.
The practice of private prayer, Bible-reading, and self-discipline.
Bringing the teaching and example of Christ into his everyday life.
The boldness of his spoken witness to his faith in Christ.
His personal service to the Church and the community.
The offering of money according to his means for the support of the work of the Church at home and overseas. (BCP, 555)

This exhortation contains within it a framework for a Rule of Life wholly consistent with the Rule of St Benedict.

The first suggestion is regular attendance to public worship, especially to receive the Holy Eucharist. For St Benedict’s monks, this was not necessarily possible as most monks (including St Benedict himself) were nor ordained and could not themselves celebrate the Eucharist. They were still required to attend Sunday mass and receive communion, but all monks were required to communally pray the Daily Offices. St Benedict explains why:

We believe that the divine presence is everywhere and that “the eyes of the Lord are looking on the good and the evil in every place” (Prov. 15:3). But we should believe this especially without any doubt when we are assisting at the Work of God... Let us therefore consider how we ought to conduct ourselves in sight of the Godhead and of His Angels, and let us take part in the psalmody in such a way that our mind may be in harmony with our voice. (RoB, Ch. XIX)

The second area the BCP encourages the creation of a Rule is in prayer, reading of Scripture and self-discipline. The Rule of Benedict requires prayer multiple times a day. In the first chapter it describes the character of a good monk as a person of prayer, “And first of all, whatever good work you begin to do, beg of Him with most earnest prayer to perfect it, that He who has now deigned to count us among His children may not at any time be grieved by our evil deeds.” Similarly, Scripture was read constantly. Included in the Rule was the provision that no meal should go without Scripture reading, and therefore the monks were to establish a schedule for a regular rotation of readers. The only interruption allowed would be if the Superior of the monastery wanted to briefly interrupt the reading to explain part of it. Finally, self-discipline was at the core of the Rule, which provided for poverty of monks, limits on food and clothing to avoid becoming too ostentatious (historically, some monks maintained lavish lifestyles despite vows of poverty because their monasteries became rich and the fine clothes and food the monks enjoyed technically belonged to the monastery itself and did not violate their personal vows of poverty).

The remaining four suggestions in the BCP are all related. Living a Christ-like life, speaking the Word of God boldly (in the way Christ taught), offering service to the Church and community (again in the model of Christ), offering money according to your means, as Christ taught. In the Rule of Benedict, there are a number of requirements that relate to these particular aspects of the Christian life. Chapter 4 of the Rule provides for a list of 61 “instruments of Good Works.” These include various instructions of Christ, including the Beatitudes, a summary of the Decalogue, and other rules related to the asceticism prescribed by St Benedict.

St Benedict’s rule remains in common use throughout the Western world by Christian monastics, but it also provides a guide for a Rule of Life for any Christian.

On the English Church

The Seventh Sunday after Trinity

LORD of all power and might, who art the author and giver of all good things: Graft in our hearts the love of thy Name, increase in us true religion, nourish us with all goodness, and of thy great mercy keep us in the same; through Jesus Christ our Lord. Amen.

Where should a blog like this begin? There are so many issues in Anglicanism that are in the news, either in the Anglican Journal or even in secular newspapers, that it's difficult to know what to comment on first. The reality is that this blog is not simply a mouthpiece for commentary on topical controversies. Any opinion that could be expressed here has probably been expressed elsewhere, and in a more eloquent and theologically grounded way to boot.

Rather, this blog will seek to express something of a journey of understanding of the Anglican tradition from the perspective of a Calgarian of the Anglo-Catholic persuasion. In that sense, the best place to start is not with what is in the news, but rather with the beginning. What is the English Church?

To many an outsider, the Church of England was formed by Henry VIII who wanted to make himself an English Pope so he could divorce and remarry (a few times). The reality of the English Church is much more complex, and far older. The entire history of the Church of England cannot be detailed in one post, so in this first part, the history of the English Church from the 3rd century through to the start of the 16th century will be detailed. The 16th century and the formation of the modern Church of England will be dealt with next week.

The origin of the English Church dates much further back than the early 16th century, and is fact noted to have existed in the 3rd and 4th centuries. St Alban's martyrdom in the 3rd century is recorded in St Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People. Records of the Council of Arles in 314 held in France list the names of the Bishop of York, the Bishop of London and the Bishop of Cærleon-on-Usk all in attendance from the British Province. Three more British bishops were also noted to have attended the Council of Ariminum in 360, and although they didn't attend the Council of Nicaea, the Nicene Creed's anti-Arian position was accepted by the British bishops, speaking to reasonably strong organization and contact with the rest of Western Christianity. A number of Celtic missionaries, notably St Patrick in Ireland and St Ninian in Scotland, were also active in the 4th and 5th centuries, establishing what would become the Celtic Christian tradition in Ireland, Scotland and Wales, which itself would have a significant influence on the English Church. It wasn't until 597 that a missionary arrived from Rome under the authority of the Pope.

As a Roman province, Britain was not exempt from the political turmoil unfolding on the continent. The Roman armies were withdrawn from Britain in the late 4th and early 5th centuries in order to defend the Empire on the continent from increasing barbarian activity. This had the effect of leaving the Roman province defenceless to barbarians arriving from northern Germany. Britain faced attacks from the Germanic Angles, Saxons and Jutes who largely destroyed the organization of the early Roman-English church in England as these three tribes carved out their own kingdoms in England. Contact between Britain and the continental church was largely lost during this period of strife and was not re-established until the arrival of St Augustine of Canterbury in 597.

As a result of the invasions, generally in south-eastern and central England, Roman Britons fled west to Wales and the Celtic lands where a distinctive brand of Christianity formed as British Christian traditions were fused with pagan Welsh practices, creating its own distinctive Welsh Christianity. While there was initially no effort to evangelize the Germanic invaders, that would change under evangelical monastic influence. Born to British parents, St Patrick eventually studied the monastic life in France before coming to Ireland where he evangelized the Irish people, establishing a number of monasteries and bishoprics throughout Ireland. Because of St Patrick's own monastic origins and due to the lack of previous contact with the continent where civil organization was strongly related to ecclesiastical organization of bishoprics, monasteries and abbots where the fundamental units of Celtic Christianity in Ireland. The evangelical nature of the monasteries led eventually to waves of missions to the mainland. St Columba arrived in Scotland in 563, and began a wave of conversions starting in the north of Britain and working south, such that when St Augustine arrived in 597 and began a second wave of conversions, there existed already many Christians in Britain.

St Augustine had been sent by the Pope, St Gregory the Great, to re-establish contact with Britain and convert the locals, particularly the Jute King of Kent, to Christianity. When St Augustine met with King Æthelbert, he found that the Queen was already Christian, and the King welcomed and supported St Augustine after his own conversion. In addition to his missional work, St Gregory is remembered for his liturgical revisions and standardizations. In acknowledgement of the existing status of Christianity in Britain, however, St Augustine was allowed to simply maintain a modified local liturgy, which was based primarily on the liturgy of St John, rather than of St Peter which was used in Rome. St Augustine founded a monastery at Canterbury which would become the eventual seat of British Christianity. Over the next century the waves of Christianizing influence would largely cover all of Britain to the point that conflicts between Christians and pagans soon began to be supplanted by conflicts between the northern Celtic Christians and the southern Roman Christians.

In 664 the Synod of Whitby was held in Northumbria to resolve some of the local differences between the Celtic and Roman traditions. A major consequence of the Synod was the establishment of the secondary seat of power of the Archbishop of York. While the Roman tradition had essentially won out at the Synod, the Celtic monastic tradition was allowed to continue.

The three streams of Christian history in England (the early Romano-British Church, preserved to a degree in Welsh Christianity, the Celtic monastic tradition and the later Roman tradition) had been fused to create what became termed the Ecclesia Anglicana, the English Church.

While the Church remained in full communion with the Pope and recognized his authority up until the 16th century, the English Church never lost its unique identity. Following the Great Schism in 1054, it would be common for English Christians to identify, as did other Western Christians, as being Catholic or Roman as opposed to Eastern Orthodox, but at no point did this change the reality of a distinctive English Church in communion with Rome, as opposed to what one might today think of as the Roman Catholic Church in England.